It may be self-evident that the amount of money spent on education by a country will have an impact on the country’s literacy rate. But is there a statistically significant relationship? And can that relationship be quantified using a predictive model? It is further presumed that literacy rates will be lower in poorer regions of the world and in those having forms of government in which the head of state holds more power and has less accountability to his or her constituents. This project sought to validate those assumptions and to generate a model that will predict the change in literacy rate based on the studied parameters.
The study confirms that literacy rate is impacted positively by educational spending, with a fairly steep relationship: A one-percent increase in educational spending yields an almost a three-percent rise in literacy rate. There is also evidence to suggest a statistically significant relationship between literacy and both the country’s geographic subregion and its form of government, although it is noted that not all conditions were sufficiently satisfied for the analysis.
It may be self-evident that the amount of money spent on education by a country will have an impact on the country’s literacy rate. But is there a statistically significant relationship? And can that relationship be quantified using a predictive model?
It is further presumed that literacy rates will be lower in poorer regions of the world and in those having forms of government in which the head of state holds more power and has less accountability to his or her constituents. This project seeks to validate those assumptions and to generate a model that will predict the change in literacy rate based on the studied parameters.
The data came from several sources:
Regional data is from a public dataset on Github\(^1\).
Government spending on education is posted on worldbank.org and is collected annually from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics; data from the years 1960 to 2020 was available for download\(^2\).
Literacy rates were obtained from an aggregated dataset on wikimedia.org; the data was originally collected by worldbank.org, the CIA World Factbook, and other sources. The dataset includes some historical data as old as 1475 but with a majority of data points between 1960 and 2015\(^3\). For the purposes of this study, only data from 1960 or newer was used.
Forms of government were taken from Wikipedia\(^4\).
Data preparation included a few tidying steps:
##########################
# Regions
##########################
# Load countries by region
# from https://raw.githubusercontent.com/lukes/ISO-3166-Countries-with-Regional-Codes/master/all/all.csv
regions_full <- read.csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mmippolito/cuny/main/data606/project/country_regions.csv")
# Standarize field names
regions <- regions_full %>%
rename(
"country_numeric_code" = "country.code",
"country_code" = "alpha.3",
"subregion" = "sub.region"
)
##########################
# Government spending
##########################
# Load govt spending on education data set
# from https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS
edspending_full <- read.csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mmippolito/cuny/main/data606/project/govt_ed_spending.csv")
# Standardize field names
edspending <- edspending_full %>%
rename(
"country" = "Country.Name",
"country_code" = "Country.Code"
) %>%
select(-`Indicator.Name`, -`Indicator.Code`, -`X`)
# Remove Xs from years in column names
edspending <- rename_with(edspending, function(x) ifelse(substr(x, 1, 1) == "X", substr(x, 2, 5), x))
# Gather columns
edspending <- edspending %>% gather(3:63, key = "year", value = "pct_gdp")
# Convert years to numeric
edspending$year <- as.numeric(edspending$year)
##########################
# Literacy rates
##########################
# Load literacy rates
# from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Data:Cross-country_literacy_rates_-_World_Bank,_CIA_World_Factbook,_and_other_sources_(OWID_2762).tab
lit_full <- read.csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mmippolito/cuny/main/data606/project/cross-country-literacy-rates.csv")
# Standardize field names
lit <- lit_full %>%
rename(
"country" = "Entity",
"country_code" = "Code",
"year" = "Year",
"lit_rate" = "Literacy.rates..World.Bank..CIA.World.Factbook..and.other.sources."
) %>%
filter(year >= 1960)
##########################
# Forms of government
##########################
# Load forms of government from CSV if it exists, otherwise parse from Wikipedia
# from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government
if (url.exists("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mmippolito/cuny/main/data606/project/govt_forms.csv")) {
govts <- read.csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mmippolito/cuny/main/data606/project/govt_forms.csv", header = T)
} else {
# Scrape and parse tables
govts_html <- read_html("https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government", encoding = "UTF-8")
govts_tables <- html_table(govts_html, fill = TRUE)
govts <- data.frame(govts_tables[6])
# Standarize field names
govts <- govts %>%
rename(
country = Name,
govt = Constitutional.form,
head_of_state = Head.of.state,
exec_legitimacy = Basis.of.executive.legitimacy)
# Remove footnotes
govts$exec_legitimacy <- str_replace_all(govts$exec_legitimacy, '\\[.+?\\]', '')
# Change provisional gov't with no head to "no" instead of "n/a"
govts$head_of_state <- ifelse(govts$head_of_state == "n/a", "no", govts$head_of_state)
# Lower case
govts$govt <- tolower(govts$govt)
govts$head_of_state <- tolower(govts$head_of_state)
govts$exec_legitimacy <- tolower(govts$exec_legitimacy)
# Standardize names
govts <- govts %>%
mutate(country = case_when(
country == "Bahamas, The" ~ "Bahamas",
country == "China, People's Republic of" ~ "China",
country == "Congo, Democratic Republic of the" ~ "Democratic Republic of Congo",
country == "Congo, Republic of the" ~ "Congo",
country == "Côte d'Ivoire" ~ "Cote d'Ivoire",
country == "Czech Republic" ~ "Czechia",
country == "East Timor" ~ "Timor",
country == "Federated States of Micronesia" ~ "Micronesia",
country == "Gambia, The" ~ "Gambia",
country == "Korea, North" ~ "North Korea",
country == "Korea, South" ~ "South Korea",
country == "São Tomé and Príncipe" ~ "Sao Tome and Principe",
country == "Vatican City" ~ "Vatican",
TRUE ~ country)
)
# Add country codes by joining to lit_sum
govts <-govts %>%
left_join(
lit %>% group_by(country, country_code) %>% summarize(n(), .groups = "keep")
, by = c("country")) %>%
select(country, govt, head_of_state, exec_legitimacy, country_code)
# Save to CSV
# Create short form of exec_legitimacy
govts <- govts %>%
mutate(exec_legit_short = case_when(
exec_legitimacy == "all authority vested in absolute monarch" ~
"having absolute authority",
exec_legitimacy == "ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence" ~
"accountable to legislature",
exec_legitimacy == "monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions" ~
"sharing power",
exec_legitimacy == "no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime" ~
"with no contsitutional legitimacy",
exec_legitimacy == "power constitutionally linked to a single political movement" ~
"constitutionally granted power by single party",
exec_legitimacy == "presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence" ~
"independent of and accountable to legislature",
exec_legitimacy == "presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence" ~
"elected by legislature",
exec_legitimacy == "presidency is independent of legislature" ~
"independent of legislature",
TRUE ~ '')
)
govts$govt_type_short <- paste0(govts$govt, " with ", govts$head_of_state, " head\n", govts$exec_legit_short)
}
Because the data came from disparate sources, there were gaps that had to be addressed before proceeding with analysis. For example, many countries had sparser data on literacy rates compared to government spending on education:
regions %>%
select(country_code) %>%
left_join(edspending, by = c("country_code")) %>%
group_by(country_code) %>%
summarize(edspending_year_count = n()) %>%
full_join(lit, by = c("country_code")) %>%
group_by(country_code, edspending_year_count) %>%
summarize(litrate_year_count = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
full_join(govts, by = c("country_code")) %>%
group_by(country_code, edspending_year_count, litrate_year_count) %>%
summarize(govt_count = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
group_by() %>%
summarize(countries = n(), ed_spending_year_count = sum(edspending_year_count, na.rm = T),
litrate_year_count = sum(litrate_year_count, na.rm = T), govt_count = sum(govt_count, na.rm = T)) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 1.</b> Summary of observations</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| countries | ed_spending_year_count | litrate_year_count | govt_count |
|---|---|---|---|
| 253 | 13149 | 1268 | 255 |
In addition, some countries had no country code listed, while others had no literacy rate or educational spending data:
regions %>%
select(country_code) %>%
left_join(edspending, by = c("country_code")) %>%
group_by(country_code) %>%
summarize(edspending_year_count = n()) %>%
full_join(lit, by = c("country_code")) %>%
group_by(country_code, edspending_year_count) %>%
summarize(litrate_year_count = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
full_join(govts, by = c("country_code")) %>%
group_by(country_code, edspending_year_count, litrate_year_count) %>%
summarize(govt_count = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
arrange(country_code) %>%
filter(is.na(edspending_year_count) | is.na(litrate_year_count) | is.na(govt_count)) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 1.5.</b> Data gaps</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| country_code | edspending_year_count | litrate_year_count | govt_count |
|---|---|---|---|
| NA | 109 | 1 | |
| OWID_KOS | NA | 1 | 1 |
| OWID_WRL | NA | 4 | 1 |
| NA | NA | NA | 3 |
For these reasons, the data couldn’t be reliably compared on a year-by-year basis. Instead, the data was taken as an aggregate, using mean values for literacy rate and educational spending per country.
##########################
# Data aggregation
##########################
# Calculate mean literacy rate per country
lit_sum <- lit %>%
group_by(country, country_code) %>%
summarize(lit_rate = mean(lit_rate, na.rm = T), .groups = "keep")
# Calculate mean education spending per country
ed_sum <- edspending %>% group_by(country, country_code) %>%
summarize(pct_gdp = mean(pct_gdp, na.rm = T), .groups = "keep")
# Join the summarized tables
j <- lit_sum %>%
full_join(ed_sum, by = c("country_code")) %>%
full_join(govts, by = c("country_code")) %>%
left_join(regions, by = c("country_code"))
# Filter out rows with no country code or subregion; these are regional aggregations
j <- j %>%
filter(str_length(country_code) > 0 & str_length(region) > 0)
# Filter out NaNs
#j <- j %>%
# filter(!is.na(pct_gdp)) %>%
# filter(!is.na(lit_rate))
# Select only relevant fields
j <- j %>%
select(country_code, country = country.x, region, subregion,
pct_gdp, lit_rate, govt, head_of_state, exec_legitimacy, exec_legit_short, govt_type_short)
# Add rankings
j$rank_pct_gdp <- rank(desc(j$pct_gdp))
j$rank_lit_rate <- rank(desc(j$lit_rate))
Data overview:
# Data overview
j %>%
arrange(country_code) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 2.</b> Sample data</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| country_code | country | region | subregion | pct_gdp | lit_rate | govt | head_of_state | exec_legitimacy | exec_legit_short | govt_type_short | rank_pct_gdp | rank_lit_rate |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ABW | Aruba | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 5.404377 | 97.21270 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 48 | 71.0 |
| AFG | Afghanistan | Asia | Southern Asia | 2.529187 | 29.35561 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 170 | 208.0 |
| AGO | Angola | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.483620 | 69.85356 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 127 | 166.0 |
| AIA | Anguilla | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NA | 95.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 198 | 87.0 |
| ALB | Albania | Europe | Southern Europe | 3.418164 | 97.25956 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 130 | 69.0 |
| AND | Andorra | Europe | Southern Europe | 2.741496 | 100.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 158 | 4.0 |
| ARE | United Arab Emirates | Asia | Western Asia | NaN | 76.94260 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 217 | 153.0 |
| ARG | Argentina | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.317577 | 95.24479 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 137 | 85.0 |
| ARM | Armenia | Asia | Western Asia | 2.694361 | 99.41624 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 160 | 20.0 |
| ASM | American Samoa | Oceania | Polynesia | NaN | 97.34416 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 197 | 67.0 |
| ATG | Antigua and Barbuda | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 2.888497 | 98.95000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 154 | 47.0 |
| AUS | Australia | Oceania | Australia and New Zealand | 5.151343 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 57 | 38.0 |
| AUT | Austria | Europe | Western Europe | 5.257330 | 98.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 54 | 57.5 |
| AZE | Azerbaijan | Asia | Western Asia | 3.109744 | 99.65141 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 143 | 13.0 |
| BDI | Burundi | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.565271 | 58.32817 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 82 | 183.0 |
| BEL | Belgium | Europe | Western Europe | 5.556783 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 40 | 38.0 |
| BEN | Benin | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.794050 | 29.10703 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 155 | 209.0 |
| BFA | Burkina Faso | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.298072 | 22.66968 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 139 | 213.0 |
| BGD | Bangladesh | Asia | Southern Asia | 1.678536 | 46.82022 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 191 | 195.0 |
| BGR | Bulgaria | Europe | Eastern Europe | 3.805609 | 98.31486 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 111 | 51.0 |
| BHR | Bahrain | Asia | Western Asia | 2.566467 | 86.11803 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 165 | 127.0 |
| BHS | Bahamas | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 2.232840 | 95.60000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 178 | 83.0 |
| BIH | Bosnia and Herzegovina | Europe | Southern Europe | NaN | 95.33726 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 200 | 84.0 |
| BLR | Belarus | Europe | Eastern Europe | 5.239945 | 99.20330 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 56 | 24.0 |
| BLZ | Belize | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 6.272143 | 76.53762 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 20 | 154.0 |
| BMU | Bermuda | Americas | Northern America | 2.544276 | 98.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 166 | 57.5 |
| BOL | Bolivia | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NaN | 74.46010 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 199 | 156.0 |
| BRA | Brazil | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 5.080326 | 84.64864 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 58 | 132.0 |
| BRB | Barbados | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 5.537892 | 99.48404 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 42 | 17.0 |
| BRN | Brunei | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 3.703406 | 90.21032 | absolute monarchy | executive | all authority vested in absolute monarch | having absolute authority | absolute monarchy with executive head having absolute authority | 118 | 113.0 |
| BTN | Bhutan | Asia | Southern Asia | 6.021192 | 57.91837 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 25 | 184.0 |
| BWA | Botswana | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.993343 | 81.42539 | republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | elected by legislature | republic with executive head elected by legislature | 26 | 140.0 |
| CAF | Central African Republic | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 1.740243 | 35.20220 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 188 | 205.0 |
| CAN | Canada | Americas | Northern America | 6.197651 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 21 | 38.0 |
| CHE | Switzerland | Europe | Western Europe | 4.689695 | 99.00000 | republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | elected by legislature | republic with executive head elected by legislature | 75 | 38.0 |
| CHL | Chile | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.691271 | 93.57834 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 119 | 98.0 |
| CHN | China | Asia | Eastern Asia | 1.844865 | 85.13846 | republic | ceremonial | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | constitutionally granted power by single party | republic with ceremonial head constitutionally granted power by single party | 187 | 131.0 |
| CIV | Cote d’Ivoire | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.928473 | 40.69545 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 68 | 202.0 |
| CMR | Cameroon | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.897598 | 65.31628 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 152 | 175.0 |
| COD | Democratic Republic of Congo | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 1.607514 | 70.15435 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 192 | 165.0 |
| COG | Congo | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.019531 | 79.31117 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 59 | 146.0 |
| COK | Cook Islands | Oceania | Polynesia | NA | 95.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 202 | 87.0 |
| COL | Colombia | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.874822 | 86.52842 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 106 | 123.0 |
| COM | Comoros | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.766659 | 68.02978 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 156 | 170.0 |
| CPV | Cape Verde | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.841645 | 79.15245 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 31 | 147.0 |
| CRI | Costa Rica | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 5.588009 | 91.13427 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 37 | 107.0 |
| CUB | Cuba | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 9.324697 | 92.31931 | republic | executive | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | constitutionally granted power by single party | republic with executive head constitutionally granted power by single party | 3 | 105.0 |
| CUW | NA | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.930950 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 67 | 215.0 |
| CYM | Cayman Islands | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NaN | 98.86782 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 201 | 48.0 |
| CYP | Cyprus | Asia | Western Asia | 4.818381 | 97.22608 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 72 | 70.0 |
| CZE | Czechia | Europe | Eastern Europe | 4.162092 | 99.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 93 | 38.0 |
| DEU | Germany | Europe | Western Europe | 4.667312 | 99.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 76 | 38.0 |
| DJI | Djibouti | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 6.866364 | 67.90000 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 12 | 171.0 |
| DMA | Dominica | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.608076 | 94.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 80 | 94.0 |
| DNK | Denmark | Europe | Northern Europe | 7.190932 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 10 | 38.0 |
| DOM | Dominican Republic | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 1.555551 | 77.72348 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 193 | 151.0 |
| DZA | Algeria | Africa | Northern Africa | 6.038817 | 69.37950 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 24 | 167.0 |
| ECU | Ecuador | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.705038 | 83.11557 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 117 | 138.0 |
| EGY | Egypt | Africa | Northern Africa | 4.600963 | 63.64481 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 81 | 177.0 |
| ERI | Eritrea | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.481282 | 66.38323 | republic | executive | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | constitutionally granted power by single party | republic with executive head constitutionally granted power by single party | 128 | 174.0 |
| ESP | Spain | Europe | Southern Europe | 3.724955 | 97.32185 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 115 | 68.0 |
| EST | Estonia | Europe | Northern Europe | 5.414394 | 99.80073 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 46 | 9.0 |
| ETH | Ethiopia | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.826884 | 36.15184 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 109 | 204.0 |
| FIN | Finland | Europe | Northern Europe | 5.825813 | 100.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 32 | 4.0 |
| FJI | Fiji | Oceania | Melanesia | 5.310019 | 93.70000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 52 | 95.0 |
| FRA | France | Europe | Western Europe | 4.619930 | 99.00000 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 78 | 38.0 |
| FRO | NA | Europe | Northern Europe | NaN | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 220 | 216.0 |
| FSM | NA | Oceania | Micronesia | 8.513233 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 5 | 219.0 |
| GAB | Gabon | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.100981 | 79.90022 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 144 | 145.0 |
| GBR | United Kingdom | Europe | Northern Europe | 4.948231 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 64 | 38.0 |
| GEO | Georgia | Asia | Western Asia | 2.900634 | 99.72141 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 151 | 11.0 |
| GHA | Ghana | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.720397 | 68.65681 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 74 | 169.0 |
| GIB | Gibraltar | Europe | Southern Europe | NaN | 80.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 204 | 144.0 |
| GIN | Guinea | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.256420 | 26.50957 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 176 | 211.0 |
| GMB | Gambia | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.073105 | 48.92602 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 183 | 194.0 |
| GNB | Guinea-Bissau | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.619680 | 44.95455 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 164 | 197.0 |
| GNQ | Equatorial Guinea | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.187980 | 92.82023 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 180 | 103.0 |
| GRC | Greece | Europe | Southern Europe | 2.184492 | 94.38848 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 181 | 92.0 |
| GRD | Grenada | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.550270 | 96.89724 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 124 | 75.0 |
| GRL | Greenland | Americas | Northern America | NaN | 100.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 205 | 4.0 |
| GTM | Guatemala | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 2.541393 | 57.17512 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 168 | 187.0 |
| GUM | Guam | Oceania | Micronesia | NaN | 98.52628 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 206 | 50.0 |
| GUY | Guyana | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 5.977280 | 86.26466 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 28 | 125.0 |
| HKG | Hong Kong | Asia | Eastern Asia | 3.086896 | 93.50000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 145 | 99.0 |
| HND | Honduras | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.060441 | 66.92830 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 100 | 172.0 |
| HRV | Croatia | Europe | Southern Europe | 4.101622 | 98.31155 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 96 | 52.0 |
| HTI | Haiti | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 1.875111 | 31.75606 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 186 | 206.0 |
| HUN | Hungary | Europe | Eastern Europe | 4.994239 | 99.06012 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 60 | 29.0 |
| IDN | Indonesia | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 2.543464 | 88.81549 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 167 | 119.0 |
| IMN | NA | Europe | Northern Europe | NaN | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 221 | 217.0 |
| IND | India | Asia | Southern Asia | 3.625842 | 59.04709 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 122 | 181.0 |
| IRL | Ireland | Europe | Northern Europe | 4.865915 | 99.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 71 | 38.0 |
| IRN | Iran | Asia | Southern Asia | 3.869538 | 73.41727 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 107 | 159.0 |
| IRQ | Iraq | Asia | Western Asia | 3.277447 | 77.76422 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 140 | 150.0 |
| ISL | Iceland | Europe | Northern Europe | 6.697072 | 99.00000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 14 | 38.0 |
| ISR | Israel | Asia | Western Asia | 6.065511 | 94.42570 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 23 | 90.0 |
| ITA | Italy | Europe | Southern Europe | 4.236024 | 98.18531 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 91 | 54.0 |
| JAM | Jamaica | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.982682 | 85.51742 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 61 | 130.0 |
| JOR | Jordan | Asia | Western Asia | 4.156999 | 90.54745 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 94 | 110.0 |
| JPN | Japan | Asia | Eastern Asia | 4.035063 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 102 | 38.0 |
| KAZ | Kazakhstan | Asia | Central Asia | 3.079483 | 99.14057 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 147 | 27.0 |
| KEN | Kenya | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.621169 | 77.46984 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 36 | 152.0 |
| KGZ | Kyrgyzstan | Asia | Central Asia | 5.499907 | 99.14811 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 43 | 26.0 |
| KHM | Cambodia | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 1.697035 | 74.15550 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 190 | 157.0 |
| KIR | NA | Oceania | Micronesia | 7.706612 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 9 | 218.0 |
| KNA | Saint Kitts and Nevis | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.393330 | 97.80000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 134 | 63.5 |
| KOR | South Korea | Asia | Eastern Asia | 3.406843 | 97.96594 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 131 | 60.0 |
| KWT | Kuwait | Asia | Western Asia | 4.627532 | 85.57383 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 77 | 129.0 |
| LAO | Laos | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 2.318959 | 70.22771 | republic | executive | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | constitutionally granted power by single party | republic with executive head constitutionally granted power by single party | 173 | 164.0 |
| LBN | Lebanon | Asia | Western Asia | 2.223663 | 91.83177 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 179 | 106.0 |
| LBR | Liberia | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.139657 | 41.68448 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 182 | 201.0 |
| LBY | Libya | Africa | Northern Africa | 2.264170 | 80.90334 | provisional | no | no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime | with no contsitutional legitimacy | provisional with no head with no contsitutional legitimacy | 175 | 141.0 |
| LCA | Saint Lucia | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.343116 | 90.10000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 86 | 114.0 |
| LIE | Liechtenstein | Europe | Western Europe | 2.245480 | 100.00000 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 177 | 4.0 |
| LKA | Sri Lanka | Asia | Southern Asia | 2.535103 | 90.43716 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 169 | 112.0 |
| LSO | Lesotho | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 8.653212 | 80.47186 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 4 | 142.0 |
| LTU | Lithuania | Europe | Northern Europe | 4.958919 | 99.43147 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 63 | 19.0 |
| LUX | Luxembourg | Europe | Western Europe | 3.650740 | 100.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 120 | 4.0 |
| LVA | Latvia | Europe | Northern Europe | 5.337286 | 99.74686 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 51 | 10.0 |
| MAC | Macao | Asia | Eastern Asia | 2.678659 | 93.40819 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 161 | 100.0 |
| MAF | NA | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NaN | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 223 | 222.0 |
| MAR | Morocco | Africa | Northern Africa | 5.246433 | 53.45492 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 55 | 189.0 |
| MCO | Monaco | Europe | Western Europe | 1.235655 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 195 | 38.0 |
| MDA | Moldova | Europe | Eastern Europe | 6.680688 | 97.90480 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 15 | 61.0 |
| MDG | Madagascar | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.628151 | 66.60780 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 163 | 173.0 |
| MDV | Maldives | Asia | Southern Asia | 4.481600 | 94.41717 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 83 | 91.0 |
| MEX | Mexico | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.274014 | 88.98518 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 89 | 118.0 |
| MHL | Marshall Islands | Oceania | Micronesia | 11.253536 | 98.26508 | republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | elected by legislature | republic with executive head elected by legislature | 1 | 53.0 |
| MKD | North Macedonia | Europe | Southern Europe | 4.294133 | 96.44580 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 88 | 77.0 |
| MLI | Mali | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.315431 | 25.19784 | provisional | no | no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime | with no contsitutional legitimacy | provisional with no head with no contsitutional legitimacy | 138 | 212.0 |
| MLT | Malta | Europe | Southern Europe | 4.613346 | 90.65190 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 79 | 108.0 |
| MMR | Myanmar | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 1.915140 | 88.63134 | provisional | no | no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime | with no contsitutional legitimacy | provisional with no head with no contsitutional legitimacy | 185 | 120.0 |
| MNE | Montenegro | Europe | Southern Europe | NaN | 95.60674 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 207 | 82.0 |
| MNG | Mongolia | Asia | Eastern Asia | 4.941291 | 98.13116 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 66 | 55.0 |
| MNP | Northern Mariana Islands | Oceania | Micronesia | NaN | 97.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 212 | 73.0 |
| MOZ | Mozambique | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.450694 | 44.67777 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 85 | 198.0 |
| MRT | Mauritania | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.049036 | 49.61167 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 184 | 193.0 |
| MSR | Montserrat | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NA | 97.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 208 | 73.0 |
| MUS | Mauritius | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.971570 | 88.53835 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 105 | 121.0 |
| MWI | Malawi | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.003376 | 59.98611 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 103 | 180.0 |
| MYS | Malaysia | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 5.483972 | 85.77487 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 44 | 128.0 |
| NAM | Namibia | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 6.927564 | 83.51319 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 11 | 137.0 |
| NCL | New Caledonia | Oceania | Melanesia | NaN | 94.85268 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 209 | 89.0 |
| NER | Niger | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.744534 | 19.40194 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 157 | 214.0 |
| NGA | Nigeria | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.136930 | 55.21642 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 142 | 188.0 |
| NIC | Nicaragua | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.487388 | 63.69006 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 126 | 176.0 |
| NIU | Niue | Oceania | Polynesia | NA | 95.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 210 | 87.0 |
| NLD | Netherlands | Europe | Western Europe | 5.411029 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 47 | 38.0 |
| NOR | Norway | Europe | Northern Europe | 6.613507 | 100.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 17 | 4.0 |
| NPL | Nepal | Asia | Southern Asia | 3.730152 | 45.28982 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 113 | 196.0 |
| NRU | NA | Oceania | Micronesia | 4.246150 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 90 | 220.0 |
| NZL | New Zealand | Oceania | Australia and New Zealand | 5.548615 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 41 | 38.0 |
| OMN | Oman | Asia | Western Asia | 3.643375 | 88.22780 | absolute monarchy | executive | all authority vested in absolute monarch | having absolute authority | absolute monarchy with executive head having absolute authority | 121 | 122.0 |
| PAK | Pakistan | Asia | Southern Asia | 2.342144 | 51.07102 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 172 | 191.0 |
| PAN | Panama | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.807270 | 84.24272 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 110 | 134.0 |
| PER | Peru | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.211311 | 84.22014 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 141 | 135.0 |
| PHL | Philippines | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 2.649313 | 92.93114 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 162 | 102.0 |
| PLW | Palau | Oceania | Micronesia | 7.757654 | 96.47849 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 8 | 76.0 |
| PNG | Papua New Guinea | Oceania | Melanesia | 4.133172 | 61.29095 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 95 | 178.0 |
| POL | Poland | Europe | Eastern Europe | 4.916595 | 99.46492 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 70 | 18.0 |
| PRI | Puerto Rico | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 6.722450 | 90.43851 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 13 | 111.0 |
| PRK | North Korea | Asia | Eastern Asia | NaN | 99.99875 | republic | executive | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | constitutionally granted power by single party | republic with executive head constitutionally granted power by single party | 211 | 8.0 |
| PRT | Portugal | Europe | Southern Europe | 4.167017 | 89.32215 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 92 | 117.0 |
| PRY | Paraguay | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.079762 | 86.37620 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 146 | 124.0 |
| PSE | Palestine | Asia | Western Asia | 5.567826 | 94.15226 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 38 | 93.0 |
| PYF | French Polynesia | Oceania | Polynesia | NaN | 98.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 203 | 57.5 |
| QAT | Qatar | Asia | Western Asia | 3.369394 | 92.66726 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 135 | 104.0 |
| ROU | Romania | Europe | Eastern Europe | 3.402827 | 97.84222 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 132 | 62.0 |
| RUS | Russia | Europe | Eastern Europe | 3.764455 | 99.20772 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 112 | 23.0 |
| RWA | Rwanda | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.718046 | 61.06872 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 116 | 179.0 |
| SAU | Saudi Arabia | Asia | Western Asia | 5.959900 | 84.45981 | absolute monarchy | executive | all authority vested in absolute monarch | having absolute authority | absolute monarchy with executive head having absolute authority | 29 | 133.0 |
| SDN | Sudan | Africa | Northern Africa | 1.716389 | 57.82152 | provisional | no | no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime | with no contsitutional legitimacy | provisional with no head with no contsitutional legitimacy | 189 | 185.0 |
| SEN | Senegal | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.075480 | 44.03210 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 98 | 199.0 |
| SGP | Singapore | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 3.006399 | 93.66474 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 150 | 96.0 |
| SHN | Saint Helena | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | NA | 97.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 213 | 73.0 |
| SLB | Solomon Islands | Oceania | Melanesia | 6.559613 | 80.35000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 18 | 143.0 |
| SLE | Sierra Leone | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.577896 | 43.48164 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 123 | 200.0 |
| SLV | El Salvador | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.448316 | 73.05684 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 129 | 160.0 |
| SMR | San Marino | Europe | Southern Europe | 3.073748 | 96.00000 | republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | elected by legislature | republic with executive head elected by legislature | 148 | 79.0 |
| SOM | Somalia | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 1.230985 | 37.80000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 196 | 203.0 |
| SPM | Saint Pierre and Miquelon | Americas | Northern America | NA | 99.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 214 | 38.0 |
| SRB | Serbia | Europe | Southern Europe | 4.047541 | 97.45418 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 101 | 66.0 |
| SSD | South Sudan | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 1.245862 | 29.40376 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 194 | 207.0 |
| STP | Sao Tome and Principe | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.362461 | 77.81696 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 49 | 149.0 |
| SUR | Suriname | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NaN | 93.60843 | republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | elected by legislature | republic with executive head elected by legislature | 215 | 97.0 |
| SVK | Slovakia | Europe | Eastern Europe | 4.067071 | 99.60000 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 99 | 16.0 |
| SVN | Slovenia | Europe | Southern Europe | 5.302957 | 99.65028 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 53 | 14.0 |
| SWE | Sweden | Europe | Northern Europe | 6.625000 | 99.00000 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 16 | 38.0 |
| SWZ | Eswatini | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.700893 | 74.95872 | absolute monarchy | executive | all authority vested in absolute monarch | having absolute authority | absolute monarchy with executive head having absolute authority | 34 | 155.0 |
| SXM | NA | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NaN | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 222 | 221.0 |
| SYC | Seychelles | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.991766 | 90.63043 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 27 | 109.0 |
| SYR | Syria | Asia | Western Asia | 4.961290 | 78.32140 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 62 | 148.0 |
| TCA | Turks and Caicos Islands | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.996080 | 98.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 104 | 57.5 |
| TCD | Chad | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.274928 | 28.79964 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 174 | 210.0 |
| TGO | Togo | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 4.309644 | 58.82138 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 87 | 182.0 |
| THA | Thailand | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 3.526057 | 93.04179 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 125 | 101.0 |
| TJK | Tajikistan | Asia | Central Asia | 3.402746 | 99.17368 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 133 | 25.0 |
| TKM | Turkmenistan | Asia | Central Asia | 3.049250 | 99.38137 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 149 | 21.0 |
| TLS | Timor | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 8.501869 | 52.64378 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 6 | 190.0 |
| TON | Tonga | Oceania | Polynesia | 5.341516 | 99.25994 | constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | sharing power | constitutional monarchy with executive head sharing power | 50 | 22.0 |
| TTO | Trinidad and Tobago | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 3.867510 | 97.61729 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 108 | 65.0 |
| TUN | Tunisia | Africa | Northern Africa | 6.075683 | 72.92872 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 22 | 161.0 |
| TUR | Turkey | Asia | Western Asia | 2.508344 | 86.25201 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 171 | 126.0 |
| TUV | NA | Oceania | Polynesia | 5.642505 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 35 | 223.0 |
| TWN | Taiwan | Asia | Eastern Asia | NA | 96.10000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 216 | 78.0 |
| TZA | Tanzania | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.327046 | 70.96110 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 136 | 163.0 |
| UGA | Uganda | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 2.712810 | 68.80716 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 159 | 168.0 |
| UKR | Ukraine | Europe | Eastern Europe | 5.566057 | 99.64933 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 39 | 15.0 |
| URY | Uruguay | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 2.895334 | 95.95549 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 153 | 80.0 |
| USA | United States | Americas | Northern America | 4.946395 | 99.13333 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 65 | 28.0 |
| UZB | Uzbekistan | Asia | Central Asia | 5.770146 | 99.65330 | republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | independent of and accountable to legislature | republic with executive head independent of and accountable to legislature | 33 | 12.0 |
| VAT | Vatican | Europe | Southern Europe | NA | 100.00000 | absolute monarchy | executive | all authority vested in absolute monarch | having absolute authority | absolute monarchy with executive head having absolute authority | 218 | 4.0 |
| VCT | Saint Vincent and the Grenadines | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 5.857815 | 95.63216 | constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | constitutional monarchy with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 30 | 81.0 |
| VEN | Venezuela | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.480655 | 83.86176 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 84 | 136.0 |
| VGB | British Virgin Islands | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | 4.723506 | 97.80000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 73 | 63.5 |
| VIR | NA | Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean | NaN | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 224 | 224.0 |
| VNM | Vietnam | Asia | South-eastern Asia | 4.918966 | 89.98192 | republic | executive | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | constitutionally granted power by single party | republic with executive head constitutionally granted power by single party | 69 | 115.0 |
| VUT | Vanuatu | Oceania | Melanesia | 6.362590 | 73.83074 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 19 | 158.0 |
| WLF | Wallis and Futuna | Oceania | Polynesia | NA | 50.00000 | NA | NA | NA | NA | NA | 219 | 192.0 |
| WSM | Samoa | Oceania | Polynesia | 4.095548 | 98.61827 | republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | accountable to legislature | republic with ceremonial head accountable to legislature | 97 | 49.0 |
| YEM | Yemen | Asia | Western Asia | 8.011537 | 57.51014 | provisional | no | no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime | with no contsitutional legitimacy | provisional with no head with no contsitutional legitimacy | 7 | 186.0 |
| ZAF | South Africa | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 5.461569 | 89.85127 | republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | elected by legislature | republic with executive head elected by legislature | 45 | 116.0 |
| ZMB | Zambia | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 3.729464 | 71.95042 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 114 | 162.0 |
| ZWE | Zimbabwe | Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa | 9.576959 | 82.94074 | republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | independent of legislature | republic with executive head independent of legislature | 2 | 139.0 |
Literacy rates (dependent variable):
# Summary statistics for literacy rate
describe(j$lit_rate) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 3.</b> Summary stats - literacy rate</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| vars | n | mean | sd | median | trimmed | mad | min | max | range | skew | kurtosis | se | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X1 | 1 | 214 | 82.51319 | 20.33653 | 90.89308 | 86.11195 | 12.01932 | 19.40194 | 100 | 80.59806 | -1.300363 | 0.7319961 | 1.390177 |
# Histogram of literacy rate
j %>%
drop_na(lit_rate) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_histogram(aes(x = lit_rate), bins = 25, fill = 'lightblue') +
xlab("Literacy rate") + ylab("Countries") +
ggtitle("Figure 1. Literacy rate") +
theme_light()
Educational spending (independent, numerical variable):
# Summary statistics for percent GDP education spending
describe(j$pct_gdp) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 4.</b> Summary stats - educational spending</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| vars | n | mean | sd | median | trimmed | mad | min | max | range | skew | kurtosis | se | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| X1 | 1 | 196 | 4.27805 | 1.70355 | 4.071276 | 4.161513 | 1.74287 | 1.230985 | 11.25354 | 10.02255 | 0.8118612 | 1.173398 | 0.1216821 |
# Histogram of GDP education spending
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_histogram(aes(x = pct_gdp), bins = 20, fill = 'lightblue') +
xlab("% GDP") + ylab("Countries") +
ggtitle("Figure 2. Percentage of GDP Spent on Education") +
theme_light()
Regions (independent, categorical variable):
# Regions table
regions %>%
group_by(region, subregion) %>%
summarize(n = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
select(-n) %>%
arrange(region, subregion) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 4.5.</b> Regions</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| region | subregion |
|---|---|
| Africa | Northern Africa |
| Africa | Sub-Saharan Africa |
| Americas | Latin America and the Caribbean |
| Americas | Northern America |
| Asia | Central Asia |
| Asia | Eastern Asia |
| Asia | South-eastern Asia |
| Asia | Southern Asia |
| Asia | Western Asia |
| Europe | Eastern Europe |
| Europe | Northern Europe |
| Europe | Southern Europe |
| Europe | Western Europe |
| Oceania | Australia and New Zealand |
| Oceania | Melanesia |
| Oceania | Micronesia |
| Oceania | Polynesia |
# Bar chart of regions
j %>%
drop_na(subregion) %>%
group_by(subregion) %>%
summarize(n = n()) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_bar(aes(x = reorder(subregion, n), y = n), fill = 'lightblue', stat = "identity") +
xlab("Subregion") + ylab("Countries") +
ggtitle("Figure 3. Subregions") +
theme_light() +
coord_flip()
Forms of government (independent, categorical variable):
# Governments table
govts %>%
group_by(govt, head_of_state, exec_legitimacy) %>%
summarize(num_countries = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
arrange(desc(num_countries)) %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 4.7.</b> Forms of government</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| govt | head_of_state | exec_legitimacy | num_countries |
|---|---|---|---|
| republic | executive | presidency is independent of legislature | 61 |
| republic | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | 41 |
| constitutional monarchy | ceremonial | ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | 29 |
| republic | executive | presidency independent of legislature; ministry is subject to parliamentary confidence | 29 |
| constitutional monarchy | executive | monarch personally exercises power in concert with other institutions | 10 |
| republic | executive | presidency is elected by legislature; ministry may be, or not be, subject to parliamentary confidence | 9 |
| absolute monarchy | executive | all authority vested in absolute monarch | 5 |
| provisional | no | no constitutionally-defined basis to current regime | 5 |
| republic | executive | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | 5 |
| republic | ceremonial | power constitutionally linked to a single political movement | 1 |
# Bar chart of governments
govts %>%
group_by(govt_type_short) %>%
summarize(n = n(), .groups = "keep") %>%
ggplot() +
geom_bar(aes(x = reorder(govt_type_short, n), y = n), fill = 'lightblue', stat = "identity") +
xlab("Form of goverment") + ylab("Countries") +
ggtitle("Figure 4. Forms of government") +
theme_light() +
coord_flip()
Explore relationships between explanatory and response variables:
# Scatter plot of literacy rate vs education spending
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp, lit_rate) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_point(aes(x = pct_gdp, y = lit_rate)) +
theme_light() +
xlab("Percent GDP") +
ylab("Literacy rate") +
ggtitle("Figure 5. Literacy rate vs educational spending")
# Box plots of literacy rate by region
j %>%
drop_na(lit_rate) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_boxplot(aes(x = reorder(subregion, -lit_rate), y = lit_rate)) +
coord_flip() +
theme_light() +
xlab("Subregion") +
ylab("Literacy rate") +
ggtitle("Figure 6. Literacy rate by subregion")
# Box plots of literacy rate by form of government
j %>%
drop_na(lit_rate) %>%
drop_na(govt_type_short) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_boxplot(aes(x = reorder(govt_type_short, -lit_rate), y = lit_rate)) +
xlab("Form of goverment") + ylab("Literacy rate") +
ggtitle("Figure 7. Literacy rate by form of government") +
theme_light() +
coord_flip()
# Set world class for maps
world <- ne_countries(scale = "medium", returnclass = "sf", type = "countries")
# Map of literacy rate
world %>%
inner_join(j, by = c("iso_a3" = "country_code")) %>%
drop_na(lit_rate) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_sf(aes(fill = lit_rate)) +
scale_fill_viridis_c(option = "cividis", trans = "sqrt", direction = -1) +
ggtitle("Figure 8. Literacy rate") +
labs(fill = "Literacy rate")
Explore independence of explanatory variables:
# Box plots of ed spending by subregion
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_boxplot(aes(x = reorder(subregion, -pct_gdp), y = pct_gdp)) +
coord_flip() +
theme_light() +
xlab("Subregion") +
ylab("% GDP") +
ggtitle("Figure 9. Educational spending by subregion")
# Box plots of ed spending by form of government
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp, govt_type_short) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_boxplot(aes(x = reorder(govt_type_short, -pct_gdp), y = pct_gdp)) +
coord_flip() +
theme_light() +
xlab("Form of government") +
ylab("% GDP") +
ggtitle("Figure 10. Educational spending by form of government")
# Bar plot of form of government by region
j %>%
drop_na(govt, region) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_bar(aes(x = region, fill = govt), position = "dodge") +
coord_flip() +
theme_light() +
xlab("Region") +
ylab("Countries") +
ggtitle("Figure 11. Form of government by region")
# Map of subregions
world %>%
inner_join(j, by = c("iso_a3" = "country_code")) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_sf(aes(fill = subregion.y)) +
ggtitle("Figure 12. Subregions of the world") +
labs(fill = "Subregion")
# Map of forms of government
world %>%
inner_join(govts, by = c("iso_a3" = "country_code")) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_sf(aes(fill = govt)) +
scale_fill_brewer(palette="PuBu") +
ggtitle("Figure 13. Forms of government") +
labs(fill = "Government")
# Map of educational spending
world %>%
inner_join(j, by = c("iso_a3" = "country_code")) %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp) %>%
ggplot() +
geom_sf(aes(fill = pct_gdp)) +
scale_fill_viridis_c(option = "cividis", trans = "sqrt", direction = -1) +
ggtitle("Figure 14. Educational spending") +
labs(fill = "% GDP")
One goal of the project was to evaluate whether there is a statistically significant difference in literacy rate and educational spending across regions as well as across government types. To evaluate this, a series of ANOVA analyses were performed. The null hypothesis for each analysis was that there was no difference in rate for the variable in question; for example, for the first test, \(H_0\) = there is no difference in educational spending rate among subregions. The alternative hypothesis would be the opposite: \(H_A\) = there is a statistically significant difference in educational spending rate among subregions. Similar comparisons were made for the remaining ANOVA tests.
It is noted that not all of the conditions for ANOVA were met. Independence was assumed, but while education spending was fairly normal across subregions and government types, the same could not be said of literacy rate, which was strongly left-skewed. Similarly, the box plots also show that variance was not constant for literacy rates, while it was more constant for educational spending.
# Literacy rates by subregion
region_summ <- j %>%
group_by(region, subregion) %>%
summarize(
n_pct_gdp = n(),
sd_pct_gdp = sd(pct_gdp, na.rm = T),
mean_pct_gdp = mean(pct_gdp, na.rm = T),
n_lit_rate = n(),
sd_lit_rate = sd(lit_rate, na.rm = T),
mean_lit_rate = mean(lit_rate, na.rm = T),
.groups = "keep"
)
# Literacy rates by govt
govt_summ <- j %>%
drop_na(govt_type_short) %>%
group_by(govt_type_short) %>%
summarize(
n_pct_gdp = n(),
sd_pct_gdp = sd(pct_gdp, na.rm = T),
mean_pct_gdp = mean(pct_gdp, na.rm = T),
n_lit_rate = n(),
sd_lit_rate = sd(lit_rate, na.rm = T),
mean_lit_rate = mean(lit_rate, na.rm = T),
.groups = "keep"
) %>%
mutate(sd_pct_gdp = ifelse(is.na(sd_pct_gdp), 0, sd_pct_gdp)) %>%
mutate(sd_lit_rate = ifelse(is.na(sd_lit_rate), 0, sd_lit_rate))
# Find overall rate - ed spending
mean_pct_gdp = mean(j$pct_gdp, na.rm = T)
sd_pct_gdp = sd(j$pct_gdp, na.rm = T)
print(paste0("Mean spending on education across all countries = ", round(mean_pct_gdp, 3), "%, sd = ", round(sd_pct_gdp, 3)))
## [1] "Mean spending on education across all countries = 4.278%, sd = 1.704"
# Find overall rate - literacy rate
mean_lit_rate = mean(j$lit_rate, na.rm = T)
sd_lit_rate = sd(j$lit_rate, na.rm = T)
print(paste0("Mean literacy rate across all countries = ", round(mean_lit_rate, 3), "%, sd = ", round(sd_lit_rate, 3)))
## [1] "Mean literacy rate across all countries = 82.513%, sd = 20.337"
print("")
## [1] ""
# Histograms - ed spending by subregion
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp) %>%
ggplot(aes(x = pct_gdp)) +
geom_histogram(binwidth = 0.5) +
facet_wrap(~subregion, ncol = 3) +
ggtitle("Figure 15. Educational spending by subregion") +
xlab("Educational spending (% GDP)") + ylab("")
# Histograms - literacy rate by subregion
j %>%
drop_na(lit_rate) %>%
ggplot(aes(x = lit_rate)) +
geom_histogram(binwidth = 7) +
facet_wrap(~subregion, ncol = 3) +
ggtitle("Figure 16. Literacy rate by subregion") +
xlab("Literacy rate (%)") + ylab("")
# Histograms - ed spending by govt
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp) %>%
ggplot(aes(x = pct_gdp)) +
geom_histogram(binwidth = 0.5) +
facet_wrap(~govt_type_short, ncol = 3) +
ggtitle("Figure 17. Educational spending by government type") +
xlab("Educational spending (% GDP)") + ylab("")
# Histograms - literacy rate by govt
j %>%
drop_na(lit_rate) %>%
ggplot(aes(x = lit_rate)) +
geom_histogram(binwidth = 7) +
facet_wrap(~govt_type_short, ncol = 3) +
ggtitle("Figure 18. Literacy rate by government type") +
xlab("Literacy rate (%)") + ylab("")
# ANOVA - ed spending vs subregion
aov_ed_region <- aov(pct_gdp ~ subregion, data = j)
print(paste0("ANOVA results - educational spending vs subregion"))
## [1] "ANOVA results - educational spending vs subregion"
summary(aov_ed_region)
## Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
## subregion 16 128.1 8.006 3.273 5.33e-05 ***
## Residuals 179 437.8 2.446
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 28 observations deleted due to missingness
# ANOVA - ed spending vs govt
aov_ed_govt <- aov(pct_gdp ~ govt_type_short, data = j)
print(paste0("ANOVA results - educational spending vs government type"))
## [1] "ANOVA results - educational spending vs government type"
summary(aov_ed_govt)
## Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
## govt_type_short 9 56.2 6.244 2.348 0.0159 *
## Residuals 174 462.8 2.660
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 40 observations deleted due to missingness
# ANOVA - lit rate vs subregion
aov_lit_region <- aov(lit_rate ~ subregion, data = j)
print(paste0("ANOVA results - literacy rate vs subregion"))
## [1] "ANOVA results - literacy rate vs subregion"
summary(aov_lit_region)
## Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
## subregion 16 48057 3003.5 14.78 <2e-16 ***
## Residuals 197 40035 203.2
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 10 observations deleted due to missingness
# ANOVA - lit rate vs govt
aov_lit_govt <- aov(lit_rate ~ govt_type_short, data = j)
print(paste0("ANOVA results - literacy rate vs government type"))
## [1] "ANOVA results - literacy rate vs government type"
summary(aov_lit_govt)
## Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F value Pr(>F)
## govt_type_short 9 14384 1598 4.25 5.15e-05 ***
## Residuals 181 68065 376
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 33 observations deleted due to missingness
Next, a linear model was fit to the literacy rate vs ed spending data. It should be noted that not all of the conditions for least squares are not met:
A second model was fit that ignored high-leverage points (percent gdp > 7.75%). Contrary to what I expected, the line didn’t change much.
# Linear model - literacy rate vs ed spending
lit_lm <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp, data = j, na.action = na.omit)
summary(lit_lm)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp, data = j, na.action = na.omit)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -56.631 -11.855 7.824 15.197 28.353
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 66.2369 3.9417 16.804 < 2e-16 ***
## pct_gdp 3.5691 0.8671 4.116 5.75e-05 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 20.03 on 189 degrees of freedom
## (33 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.08227, Adjusted R-squared: 0.07742
## F-statistic: 16.94 on 1 and 189 DF, p-value: 5.749e-05
# Line of best fit
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp, lit_rate) %>%
ggplot(aes(x = pct_gdp, y = lit_rate)) +
geom_point() +
geom_smooth(formula = y ~ x, method = "lm", se = T) +
coord_cartesian(ylim = c(0, 100)) +
xlab("Government spending (% GDP)") + ylab("Literacy rate (%)") +
ggtitle("Figure 19. Literacy rate vs educational spending")
# Residuals plot
lit_lm %>%
ggplot(aes(x = .fitted, y = .resid)) +
geom_point() +
geom_hline(yintercept = 0, linetype = "dashed") +
xlab("Fitted values") + ylab("Residuals") +
ggtitle("Figure 20. Fitted values vs residuals")
# Residuals histogram
lit_lm %>%
ggplot(aes(x = .resid)) +
geom_histogram(binwidth = 4) +
xlab("Residuals") + ylab("Count") +
ggtitle("Figure 21. Residuals histogram")
# Probability plot
lit_lm %>%
ggplot(aes(sample = .resid)) +
stat_qq() +
xlab("Theoretical values") + ylab("Actual values") +
ggtitle("Figure 22. Probability plot")
# Removing high-leverage/influential points
lit_lm_2 <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp, data = filter(j, pct_gdp < 7.75), na.action = na.omit)
summary(lit_lm_2)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp, data = filter(j, pct_gdp < 7.75),
## na.action = na.omit)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -55.135 -12.064 6.308 14.451 32.390
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 60.118 4.452 13.50 < 2e-16 ***
## pct_gdp 5.254 1.040 5.05 1.07e-06 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 19.7 on 182 degrees of freedom
## (4 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.1229, Adjusted R-squared: 0.1181
## F-statistic: 25.5 on 1 and 182 DF, p-value: 1.067e-06
j %>%
drop_na(pct_gdp, lit_rate) %>%
filter(pct_gdp < 7.75) %>%
ggplot(aes(x = pct_gdp, y = lit_rate)) +
geom_point() +
geom_smooth(formula = y ~ x, method = "lm", se = T) +
coord_cartesian(ylim = c(0, 100)) +
xlab("Fitted values") + ylab("Residuals") +
ggtitle("Figure 22.5. Literacy rate vs educational spending (high-leverage values removed)")
One additional goal of the project was to evaluate whether adding the two categorical variables (subregion and government type) would influence the linear model. First, a backward elimination by p-value strategy was used to eliminate variables. But that resulted in removing the pct_gdp variable and ending up with two categorical variables having p-values greater than 0.05. So a different strategy was employed using forward selection.
# Prepare variables
incl_pct_gdp <- c('include', '', '', 'include', 'include', 'include')
incl_subregion <- c('', 'include', '', 'include', '', 'include')
incl_govt_type <- c('', '', 'include', '', 'include', 'include')
adjrsq <- c()
# Fit linear model - pct_gdp
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp, data = j)
adjrsq <- c(adjrsq, summary(lm_mult)$adj.r.squared)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp, data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -56.631 -11.855 7.824 15.197 28.353
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 66.2369 3.9417 16.804 < 2e-16 ***
## pct_gdp 3.5691 0.8671 4.116 5.75e-05 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 20.03 on 189 degrees of freedom
## (33 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.08227, Adjusted R-squared: 0.07742
## F-statistic: 16.94 on 1 and 189 DF, p-value: 5.749e-05
# adj r-squared = 0.07742
# subregion
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ subregion, data = j)
adjrsq <- c(adjrsq, summary(lm_mult)$adj.r.squared)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ subregion, data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -55.177 -2.589 0.404 7.421 36.752
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 99.00000 10.08022 9.821 < 2e-16
## subregionCentral Asia 0.29941 11.92707 0.025 0.979998
## subregionEastern Asia -3.59469 11.27003 -0.319 0.750095
## subregionEastern Europe -0.07527 11.04233 -0.007 0.994568
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean -12.06678 10.32915 -1.168 0.244127
## subregionMelanesia -18.19513 11.92707 -1.526 0.128730
## subregionMicronesia -1.43254 12.34569 -0.116 0.907743
## subregionNorthern Africa -32.64453 11.63963 -2.805 0.005543
## subregionNorthern America 0.02667 11.92707 0.002 0.998218
## subregionNorthern Europe 0.39791 11.04233 0.036 0.971291
## subregionPolynesia -8.53966 11.42989 -0.747 0.455873
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia -15.35649 10.95835 -1.401 0.162683
## subregionSouthern Asia -38.13625 11.14410 -3.422 0.000756
## subregionSouthern Europe -3.62906 10.69169 -0.339 0.734649
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa -38.75206 10.28388 -3.768 0.000217
## subregionWestern Asia -11.17725 10.62548 -1.052 0.294121
## subregionWestern Europe 0.11111 11.14410 0.010 0.992055
##
## (Intercept) ***
## subregionCentral Asia
## subregionEastern Asia
## subregionEastern Europe
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean
## subregionMelanesia
## subregionMicronesia
## subregionNorthern Africa **
## subregionNorthern America
## subregionNorthern Europe
## subregionPolynesia
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia
## subregionSouthern Asia ***
## subregionSouthern Europe
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa ***
## subregionWestern Asia
## subregionWestern Europe
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 14.26 on 197 degrees of freedom
## (10 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.5455, Adjusted R-squared: 0.5086
## F-statistic: 14.78 on 16 and 197 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16
# adj r-squared = 0.5086
# govt type
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ govt_type_short, data = j)
adjrsq <- c(adjrsq, summary(lm_mult)$adj.r.squared)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ govt_type_short, data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -55.511 -7.458 5.459 11.145 26.619
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate
## (Intercept) 87.5713
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 5.2831
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power -3.4231
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy -25.5585
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.9695
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -2.4329
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -3.7891
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 5.4537
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature -12.6579
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature -14.6766
## Std. Error
## (Intercept) 8.6723
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 9.4149
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 10.6214
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy 12.2645
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 9.1859
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 21.2428
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 12.2645
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 11.7424
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature 9.3902
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature 9.0208
## t value
## (Intercept) 10.098
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.561
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power -0.322
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy -2.084
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.106
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -0.115
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -0.309
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 0.464
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature -1.348
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature -1.627
## Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) <2e-16
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.5754
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 0.7476
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy 0.0386
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.9161
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.9089
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.7577
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 0.6429
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature 0.1793
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature 0.1055
##
## (Intercept) ***
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy *
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 19.39 on 181 degrees of freedom
## (33 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.1745, Adjusted R-squared: 0.1334
## F-statistic: 4.25 on 9 and 181 DF, p-value: 5.15e-05
# adj r-squared = 0.1334
# Now start with pct_gdp type and add in subregion
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + subregion, data = j)
adjrsq <- c(adjrsq, summary(lm_mult)$adj.r.squared)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + subregion, data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -48.675 -3.745 1.107 7.960 37.623
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 85.7399 10.4087 8.237 4.17e-14
## pct_gdp 2.4785 0.6754 3.670 0.000323
## subregionCentral Asia 3.2480 11.5778 0.281 0.779399
## subregionEastern Asia 0.5249 11.3536 0.046 0.963178
## subregionEastern Europe 1.6350 10.7033 0.153 0.878771
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean -9.9564 10.0655 -0.989 0.323966
## subregionMelanesia -22.3053 11.9564 -1.866 0.063797
## subregionMicronesia -11.9280 14.0872 -0.847 0.398316
## subregionNorthern Africa -30.1010 11.2929 -2.665 0.008416
## subregionNorthern America 1.6622 12.6132 0.132 0.895308
## subregionNorthern Europe -0.8357 10.6984 -0.078 0.937825
## subregionPolynesia 1.5042 13.8114 0.109 0.913402
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia -11.1689 10.6730 -1.046 0.296810
## subregionSouthern Asia -33.3619 10.8698 -3.069 0.002492
## subregionSouthern Europe 1.0278 10.5937 0.097 0.922821
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa -35.9655 10.0097 -3.593 0.000426
## subregionWestern Asia -7.5503 10.3518 -0.729 0.466760
## subregionWestern Europe 3.0897 10.8222 0.285 0.775604
##
## (Intercept) ***
## pct_gdp ***
## subregionCentral Asia
## subregionEastern Asia
## subregionEastern Europe
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean
## subregionMelanesia .
## subregionMicronesia
## subregionNorthern Africa **
## subregionNorthern America
## subregionNorthern Europe
## subregionPolynesia
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia
## subregionSouthern Asia **
## subregionSouthern Europe
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa ***
## subregionWestern Asia
## subregionWestern Europe
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 13.8 on 173 degrees of freedom
## (33 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.6008, Adjusted R-squared: 0.5616
## F-statistic: 15.32 on 17 and 173 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16
# adj r-squared = 0.5616 (higher than pct_gdp alone)
# pct_gdp type + govt_type
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + govt_type_short, data = j)
adjrsq <- c(adjrsq, summary(lm_mult)$adj.r.squared)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + govt_type_short, data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -50.908 -9.014 4.168 11.318 31.083
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate
## (Intercept) 70.5917
## pct_gdp 2.9194
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 8.0302
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 3.0655
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy -18.6347
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 5.2957
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 9.1610
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -5.4925
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 4.5250
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature -8.5559
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature -8.7280
## Std. Error
## (Intercept) 10.4672
## pct_gdp 0.8901
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 10.2362
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 11.5340
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy 12.8982
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 10.0650
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 21.5651
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 13.5424
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 12.9011
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature 10.2180
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature 9.9271
## t value
## (Intercept) 6.744
## pct_gdp 3.280
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.784
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 0.266
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy -1.445
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.526
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.425
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -0.406
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 0.351
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature -0.837
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature -0.879
## Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 2.22e-10
## pct_gdp 0.00126
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.43383
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 0.79072
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy 0.15034
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.59946
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.67151
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.68556
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 0.72621
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature 0.40356
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature 0.38051
##
## (Intercept) ***
## pct_gdp **
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 19.15 on 173 degrees of freedom
## (40 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.2177, Adjusted R-squared: 0.1724
## F-statistic: 4.813 on 10 and 173 DF, p-value: 4.179e-06
# adj r-squared = 0.1724 (lower than pct_gdp alone)
# pct_gdp type + subregion + govt_type
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + subregion + govt_type_short, data = j)
adjrsq <- c(adjrsq, summary(lm_mult)$adj.r.squared)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + subregion + govt_type_short,
## data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -43.598 -4.943 0.617 7.198 36.567
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate
## (Intercept) 85.3812
## pct_gdp 2.2109
## subregionCentral Asia 7.0531
## subregionEastern Asia 5.6933
## subregionEastern Europe 6.0869
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean -8.6144
## subregionMelanesia -20.8966
## subregionMicronesia -12.1172
## subregionNorthern Africa -20.4318
## subregionNorthern America 1.3391
## subregionNorthern Europe 1.3766
## subregionPolynesia 5.4398
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia -7.6281
## subregionSouthern Asia -30.0771
## subregionSouthern Europe 2.5136
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa -32.2298
## subregionWestern Asia -2.9167
## subregionWestern Europe 4.7279
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 1.7908
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power -3.7303
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy -14.2561
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature -0.8975
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -10.0148
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -2.7066
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 7.9204
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature -5.5587
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature -1.7359
## Std. Error
## (Intercept) 13.4195
## pct_gdp 0.7332
## subregionCentral Asia 12.2477
## subregionEastern Asia 13.0671
## subregionEastern Europe 11.4471
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean 10.5685
## subregionMelanesia 12.3311
## subregionMicronesia 15.1447
## subregionNorthern Africa 12.3039
## subregionNorthern America 14.1805
## subregionNorthern Europe 11.1278
## subregionPolynesia 14.7098
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia 11.2216
## subregionSouthern Asia 11.5356
## subregionSouthern Europe 11.2066
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa 10.7116
## subregionWestern Asia 11.1476
## subregionWestern Europe 11.3141
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 8.0030
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 8.7914
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy 9.8615
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 7.7742
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 17.9961
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 10.2177
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 10.0152
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature 7.7796
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature 7.6871
## t value
## (Intercept) 6.362
## pct_gdp 3.015
## subregionCentral Asia 0.576
## subregionEastern Asia 0.436
## subregionEastern Europe 0.532
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean -0.815
## subregionMelanesia -1.695
## subregionMicronesia -0.800
## subregionNorthern Africa -1.661
## subregionNorthern America 0.094
## subregionNorthern Europe 0.124
## subregionPolynesia 0.370
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia -0.680
## subregionSouthern Asia -2.607
## subregionSouthern Europe 0.224
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa -3.009
## subregionWestern Asia -0.262
## subregionWestern Europe 0.418
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.224
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power -0.424
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy -1.446
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature -0.115
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -0.556
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party -0.265
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 0.791
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature -0.715
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature -0.226
## Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 2.07e-09
## pct_gdp 0.00300
## subregionCentral Asia 0.56552
## subregionEastern Asia 0.66366
## subregionEastern Europe 0.59566
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean 0.41625
## subregionMelanesia 0.09213
## subregionMicronesia 0.42487
## subregionNorthern Africa 0.09879
## subregionNorthern America 0.92489
## subregionNorthern Europe 0.90171
## subregionPolynesia 0.71203
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia 0.49765
## subregionSouthern Asia 0.01001
## subregionSouthern Europe 0.82282
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa 0.00306
## subregionWestern Asia 0.79394
## subregionWestern Europe 0.67661
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.82323
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power 0.67192
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy 0.15027
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature 0.90824
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.57866
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party 0.79144
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature 0.43023
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature 0.47596
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature 0.82164
##
## (Intercept) ***
## pct_gdp **
## subregionCentral Asia
## subregionEastern Asia
## subregionEastern Europe
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean
## subregionMelanesia .
## subregionMicronesia
## subregionNorthern Africa .
## subregionNorthern America
## subregionNorthern Europe
## subregionPolynesia
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia
## subregionSouthern Asia *
## subregionSouthern Europe
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa **
## subregionWestern Asia
## subregionWestern Europe
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortconstitutional monarchy with executive head\nsharing power
## govt_type_shortprovisional with no head\nwith no contsitutional legitimacy
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\naccountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with ceremonial head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nconstitutionally granted power by single party
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nelected by legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of and accountable to legislature
## govt_type_shortrepublic with executive head\nindependent of legislature
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 14.05 on 157 degrees of freedom
## (40 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.6179, Adjusted R-squared: 0.5546
## F-statistic: 9.765 on 26 and 157 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16
# adj r-squared = 0.5546 (lower than pct_gdp and subregion)
# data frame
df_models <- data.frame(adj_rsquared = adjrsq, pct_gdp = incl_pct_gdp,
subregion = incl_subregion, govt_type = incl_govt_type)
df_models %>%
kable(caption = "<i><font color=#000000><b>Table 5.</b> Linear model results</font></i>") %>%
kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover", "condensed"), font_size = 13)
| adj_rsquared | pct_gdp | subregion | govt_type |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0.0774153 | include | ||
| 0.5086218 | include | ||
| 0.1334152 | include | ||
| 0.5616186 | include | include | |
| 0.1724391 | include | include | |
| 0.5546388 | include | include | include |
# Best model:
lm_mult <- lm(lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + subregion, data = j)
summary(lm_mult)
##
## Call:
## lm(formula = lit_rate ~ pct_gdp + subregion, data = j)
##
## Residuals:
## Min 1Q Median 3Q Max
## -48.675 -3.745 1.107 7.960 37.623
##
## Coefficients:
## Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)
## (Intercept) 85.7399 10.4087 8.237 4.17e-14
## pct_gdp 2.4785 0.6754 3.670 0.000323
## subregionCentral Asia 3.2480 11.5778 0.281 0.779399
## subregionEastern Asia 0.5249 11.3536 0.046 0.963178
## subregionEastern Europe 1.6350 10.7033 0.153 0.878771
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean -9.9564 10.0655 -0.989 0.323966
## subregionMelanesia -22.3053 11.9564 -1.866 0.063797
## subregionMicronesia -11.9280 14.0872 -0.847 0.398316
## subregionNorthern Africa -30.1010 11.2929 -2.665 0.008416
## subregionNorthern America 1.6622 12.6132 0.132 0.895308
## subregionNorthern Europe -0.8357 10.6984 -0.078 0.937825
## subregionPolynesia 1.5042 13.8114 0.109 0.913402
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia -11.1689 10.6730 -1.046 0.296810
## subregionSouthern Asia -33.3619 10.8698 -3.069 0.002492
## subregionSouthern Europe 1.0278 10.5937 0.097 0.922821
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa -35.9655 10.0097 -3.593 0.000426
## subregionWestern Asia -7.5503 10.3518 -0.729 0.466760
## subregionWestern Europe 3.0897 10.8222 0.285 0.775604
##
## (Intercept) ***
## pct_gdp ***
## subregionCentral Asia
## subregionEastern Asia
## subregionEastern Europe
## subregionLatin America and the Caribbean
## subregionMelanesia .
## subregionMicronesia
## subregionNorthern Africa **
## subregionNorthern America
## subregionNorthern Europe
## subregionPolynesia
## subregionSouth-eastern Asia
## subregionSouthern Asia **
## subregionSouthern Europe
## subregionSub-Saharan Africa ***
## subregionWestern Asia
## subregionWestern Europe
## ---
## Signif. codes: 0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
##
## Residual standard error: 13.8 on 173 degrees of freedom
## (33 observations deleted due to missingness)
## Multiple R-squared: 0.6008, Adjusted R-squared: 0.5616
## F-statistic: 15.32 on 17 and 173 DF, p-value: < 2.2e-16
Using forward selection, the best model is from using educational spending by itself, without subregion or government type as additional predictors.
Based on the results of this analysis, literacy rate is confirmed to be impacted positively by educational spending. It is noted that the impact is fairly steep, with every percentage point of GDP spent on education having a three-percent rise in literacy rate.
The results of the ANOVA analysis indicate strongly that there is a statistically significant difference between both literacy rate and educational spending among regions and, additionally, among various government types. Not surprisingly, higher literacy rates are enjoyed by republics having an elected head of state who is accountable to his or her constituents, while lower literacy rates were observed in countries with provisional governments. While it was expected that literacy rates in sub-Saharan Africa would be among the lowest, it was somewhat surprising that Central Asia boasted the highest overall literacy rates. These countries include the former Soviet republics of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan. And while their overall literacy rate is, indeed, very high, according to the UN’s definition of literacy, many people in these countries are “functionally” illiterate.\(^5\) (UNESCO defines literacy as “the ability to use reading, writing and numeracy skills for effective functioning and development of the individual and the community. A person is literate who can, with understanding, both read and write a short statement on his or her everyday life.”\(^6\) Conversely, “a person is functionally literate who can engage in all those activities in which literacy is required for effective functioning of his group and community and also for enabling him to continue to use reading, writing, and calculation for his own and the community’s development.”\(^7\)) Another interesting outlier is the amount of money spent on education by Micronesia. While its average 7.9% of GDP spent on education, it should be noted that the U.S. funds around 90% of that amount in exchange for access to the islands for military purposes.\(^8\)
As noted above, not all conditions for ANOVA were met: Literacy rate data were significantly left-skewed, and the variance was not constant. Similarly, not all conditions for fitting a linear model were met: The residuals were skewed to the left, and variability narrowed at higher values.
In conclusion, there was significant statistical evidence to suggest literacy rate is also affected by subregion of the world and by the type of government in place. Perhaps more significantly, there was strong correlation between government spending on education (as a percentage of GDP) and literacy rate, with a three-fold increase in literacy for every percentage point increase in education spending.
\(^1\) https://github.com/lukes/ISO-3166-Countries-with-Regional-Codes/blob/master/all/all.csv \(^2\) https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS \(^3\) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Data:Cross-country_literacy_rates_-_World_Bank,_CIA_World_Factbook,_and_other_sources_(OWID_2762).tab \(^4\) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_countries_by_system_of_government \(^5\) https://www.dvv-international.de/en/adult-education-and-development/editions/aed-662006/education-for-all-and-literacy/review-of-central-asian-countries \(^6\) https://www.fipfoundation.org/pictograms-support/about-health-literacy/#:~:text=UNESCO%20provides%20a%20definition%20of,his%20or%20her%20everyday%20life.%E2%80%9D \(^7\) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5102880/ \(^8\) https://www.grassrootinstitute.org/2016/09/us-policies-may-hurt-micronesians-more-than-they-help/